Economos et al. Halkjaer et al. Sammel et al. Hou et al. Wanamethee et al. Liu et al. Thompson et al. Wang et al. Schutze et al. Rissanen et al.
Cordain et al. Beulens et al. Romeo et al. In summarizing the recent literature it appears that light-to-moderate alcohol intake is less likely to be a risk factor for obesity than heavy drinking. Heavy drinking and binge drinking have been more consistently linked with adiposity. There are several lines of evidence suggesting the potential for alcohol to promote weight gain, and the contradictory results often seen in the literature have led to the development of alternative hypotheses regarding the influence of alcohol on body weight.
First, as previously mentioned, energy from alcohol appears to be additive to energy from other sources [ 5 ]. Several studies suggest that consuming alcohol before or during a meal does not influence the amount of food eaten in that meal, despite increasing the energy density of the meal [ 5 ].
Thus, individuals do not appear to compensate for the added energy from alcohol in the short-term, and alcohol appears to have little effect on satiety [ 5 ]. Beyond adding energy to a meal, alcohol may actually stimulate food intake [ 5 ]. Of the 17 studies reviewed by Yeomans, ten showed increased food intake following alcohol consumption [ 5 ].
One explanation is that there is a learned association between alcohol and eating; however, several experimenters disguised the presence of alcohol in their protocols and still found increased energy intake [ 5 ]. Alcohol has also been shown to influence a number of hormones linked to satiety. The results of several studies propose that alcohol may influence energy intake by inhibiting the effects of leptin, or glucagon-like peptide-1 GLP-1 [ 56 , 57 ].
Calissendorf et al. Alcohol can also influence hunger via several central mechanisms. The effects of alcohol on opioid, serotonergic, and GABAergic pathways in the brain all suggest the potential to increase appetite [ 62 — 65 ].
Given the complexity of the interplay between central and peripheral signals of satiety, more research needs to be performed in order to elucidate the precise biochemical mechanism driving food intake following alcohol consumption. A summary of the effects of alcohol on important appetite hormones and central neurological pathways in humans can be found in Table 2.
Effect of alcohol on various peripheral hormones and central neurotransmitter systems related to hunger and energy intake. Aside from the immediate influence on appetite that comes from alcohol consumption, there are also effects on energy storage. Alcohol inhibits fat oxidation, suggesting that frequent alcohol consumption could lead to fat sparing, and thus higher body fat in the long term [ 62 ]. However, the results of the various cross-sectional and longitudinal studies examined in this review do not unequivocally support such a hypothesis.
Finally, there is also evidence to suggest that traits that predispose individuals to binge drinking may also predispose to binge eating [ 66 ]. Although there is evidence to suggest that frequent alcohol intake may predispose to weight gain or obesity over the long-term, this effect is not strongly reflected in the recent research.
This has prompted the development of several hypotheses. First, it has been found that alcohol intake increases energy expenditure, likely due in part to the fact that it has a high thermogenic effect [ 53 ].
The MEOS is induced through chronic alcohol intake, and the level of induction increases with increased intake [ 54 , 67 ]. Oxidation of alcohol via the MEOS produces less ATP than oxidation via alcohol dehydrogenase, using the energy from alcohol intake primarily to enhance heat production [ 37 , 54 ].
The extent to which wasted energy from regular alcohol consumption contributes to weight gain prevention is unclear. It has also been suggested that individuals who frequently drink moderate amounts of alcohol may enjoy a moderate lifestyle in which exercise and food intake are modulated over the long term to accommodate for alcohol intake [ 15 ].
However, studies using food logs and self-reported physical activity levels have still shown a null or negative association between moderate alcohol intake and weight gain after controlling for these and other confounders, although they may fail to truly capture the habits of participants [ 4 , 49 ].
While cross-sectional and longitudinal studies have controlled for a number of important lifestyle factors, there are many to consider when examining body weight regulation. Future research must consider the other important factors that may influence the link between alcohol and obesity, some of which are discussed below. Not taking into account some of these potential confounding factors can certainly lead to biased estimates of the relationship between alcohol intake and body weight given that large inter-individual variations exist.
Some of these confounding factors are further discussed below. The association between alcohol intake and body weight is generally stronger in men than women [ 15 ], especially because of the amount and type of alcohol consumed by men. Men are also more likely to drink beer, which is carbohydrate rich, and provides more energy than wine per standard drink [ 5 ].
Another important confounding factor to be considered is physical activity level. Many epidemiologic studies fail to consider lifestyle choices such as physical activity and sedentary behaviors despite the fact that increased energy expenditure may counter increases in energy intake through alcohol consumption [ 17 , 23 , 30 , 32 , 40 , 42 ]. Thus, accounting for both sides of the energy balance equation intake, expenditure and lifestyle habits is crucial to evaluate adequately the association between alcohol intake and obesity.
Insufficient sleep has also been shown to be associated with greater alcohol consumption and excess body weight in adults [ 69 , 70 ]. Specifically, sleeping less than 6 hours per night in adults is associated with greater alcohol intake, an increased risk of exceeding the guidelines for sensible weekly alcohol intake, and higher BMI.
Furthermore, we showed that the combination of short sleep duration with disinhibited eating behavior is associated with greater alcohol intake and excess weight [ 69 , 71 ]. These results emphasize the need to identify high-risk individuals e. Genetic aspects can also play a role in the predisposition of individuals to gain weight as a result of alcohol consumption. Recent results showed that genetic polymorphisms affect susceptibility to alcoholism and may affect body weight via gene-associated differences in fuel utilization [ 72 ].
The authors found that alcohol dehydrogenase-1B ADH1B genotype rs is a strong determinant of body weight in alcoholics. Those findings thus suggest that more research is needed to unravel genetic aspects involved in the connection between alcohol intake and weight gain. Overall, obesity is a multi-factorial condition and it is difficult to truly assess the independent influence of alcohol intake on obesity risk. The observational evidence is hampered by the possibility of residual confounding by unmeasured variables and the experimental evidence is limited by the short-term follow-up period and the difficulty to control for all lifestyle habits under free-living conditions.
The slow development of obesity and multi-faceted nature of this condition really complicates the possibility to show a cause-and-effect association between alcohol consumption and weight gain. Thus, we need to rely on short-term intervention studies and epidemiologic studies, each of which has clear limitations in showing an effect of alcohol intake on the vulnerability to gain weight.
However, the preponderance of the evidence taken as a whole suggests that alcohol may be a risk factor for obesity in some individuals, especially when consumed in large quantities. Alcohol consumption has probably contributed to the excess energy intake associated with weight gain in some individuals over the past years. However, the available evidence is conflicting and hampered by important limitations that preclude a strong conclusion on the effect of alcohol intake on obesity risk.
Moderation in drinking is still an important recommendation, together with a healthy lifestyle not conducive to weight gain. Greg Traversy and Jean-Philippe Chaput declare that they have no conflict of interest. This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors.
This article is part of the Topical Collection on Psychological Issues. Gregory Traversy, Email: ac. Jean-Philippe Chaput, Email: ac. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Current Obesity Reports. Curr Obes Rep. Published online Jan 8. Gregory Traversy and Jean-Philippe Chaput. Author information Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Corresponding author. It is definitely one worth avoiding if weight loss is the aim.
Drink alcohol with a lower caloric value, and a higher alcohol percentage like wine for example. Less will be consumed, meaning lower overall calorie consumption. The worst alcohol choices would be the cream based drinks such as eggnog calories without the alcohol and an Amaretto Sour includes tequila and orange juice and contains calories. The highest calorie cocktail of the all would be the Vodka Mudslide, which contains coffee liqueur, Irish cream and vanilla ice cream and supplies calories.
It would be better to drink a smaller quantity of liqueur with a healthier, lower calorie base such as trim milk or tomato juice the latter being the base for a Bloody Mary cocktail. Given alcohol taste is an individual matter, and people will usually choose what they like, rather than what they are advised to consume based on the health content of the drink, it is no easy task trying to persuade someone to change their drinking habits.
The above information can however be used by one who is wanting to make some physical changes by lowering the overall caloric content of what they drink. Avoid high-calorie liqueurs. These are extremely deceptive they taste so good and will add enormously to overall caloric content.
Keep healthy food on hand when drinking. As mentioned, drinking will relax the inhibitions and cause one to compromise their nutritional habits. If drinking beer, try a lower calorie alternative. Also, drink diet sodas with various spirits to significantly lower the calorie content of these drinks. Drink water between alcoholic drinks. This will increase feelings of fullness and may help to prevent over consumption of alcohol.
So what is one to do? Given alcohol plays a large role in celebration and social cohesion, can one completely refrain from its use?
It really depends on the goals a person has. Most could probably consume moderate levels of alcohol two or three standard drinks three to four times per week without any problem. Larger amounts more than seven drinks at any one time , often described as binge drinking, can cause major problems and probably should not be advocated. Maintaining reasonable levels of health, while enjoying a few drinks—using moderation as the key—should be no problem.
However, athletes—who definitely are not your average population—wanting to improve performance, and those wanting to lose weight are a different issue entirely. Alcohol, as shown, will negate any efforts to lose body fat and will alter performance for the worst. The best advice would be to totally abstain until performance and weight loss goals are obtained. Ray Audette, author of the NeanderThin Diet , provides sound advice for anyone wanting to lose weight while drinking alcohol.
Alcohol intake of all levels can lead to impaired digestion and absorption of these nutrients. This can greatly affect the metabolism of organs that play a role in weight management. This may all sound as if alcohol is ruining your chances of that beach body.
Rather than reaching for drinks high in sugar or calories, enjoy some of these calorie options instead:. Alternative cocktail: Choose low-calories mixers such as club soda and avoid overly sugary juices. Alternative cocktail: Ditch the cola and take your whiskey on the rocks for a low-calorie alternative. Alternative cocktail: This drink is best served as an after-dinner digestif and a good brandy should be enjoyed slowly to savor the subtle fruity sweetness.
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Are you looking to enjoy a drink without worrying about your calorie count? Plus, she notes, alcohol also impairs our judgment. That means we may go out to eat with the best intentions for making healthy choices. Any of those things add calories, but really without nutrition and without the sense of feeling full. Learn more about vaccine availability. Advertising Policy.
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